Advancements in Operational Excellence in Newborn Screening Reagent Manufacturing, Automation, and Global Supply Chain

Advancements in Operational Excellence in Newborn Screening Reagent Manufacturing, Automation, and Global Supply Chain 

Newborn screening (NBS) is a critical public health initiative aimed at the early detection of treatable congenital disorders. The manufacturing of reagents for NBS plays an essential role in ensuring accurate, consistent, and reliable results across laboratories worldwide. To achieve operational excellence, the industry must address the factors that impact reproducibility, consistency across reagent batches, and the efficiency of global supply chains. Additionally, the introduction of new regulations such as the European Union’s In Vitro Diagnostic Regulation (IVDR) and innovations in detecting previously unidentified disorders are reshaping the landscape of newborn screening programs globally.

Ensuring Reproducibility and Consistency Across Batches

1. Standardized Quality Control Processes:

   Ensuring the reproducibility of results is fundamental to newborn screening. Manufacturing processes must include rigorous quality control protocols that adhere to internationally recognized standards, such as ISO 13485 for medical devices. These standards help harmonize the production process, ensuring that each batch of reagents meets stringent requirements for accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. Such measures minimize variability across batches, reducing the risk of false negatives or false positives.

   Quality control in reagent production involves multiple stages of in-process and post-production testing. Automated analytical tools, including real-time PCR and mass spectrometry-based assays, are increasingly employed to monitor critical parameters such as reagent purity and stability during production. This ensures that each batch meets predetermined specifications for reliable and reproducible outcomes across different laboratories globally .

2. Impact of Automation on Batch Consistency:

   Automation plays a critical role in improving consistency across batches of NBS reagents. Automated liquid handling systems, robotic dispensers, and AI-based analytics allow for precise measurement and formulation of reagents, minimizing human error. These technologies also enhance the reproducibility of results by ensuring that each batch is produced under the same conditions with minimal variability. By leveraging machine learning, manufacturers can predict and correct any deviations in real time, reducing the likelihood of inconsistent performance.

Additionally, automated systems provide detailed process control by monitoring critical parameters like temperature, mixing speeds, and concentration gradients. This level of control ensures that all variables remain consistent across multiple production batches, which is particularly important in large-scale manufacturing to avoid inconsistencies that could compromise the reliability of NBS results .

3. Minimizing Batch-to-Batch Variability:

   False negatives in NBS can occur due to variations in reagent sensitivity, which can arise from batch-to-batch inconsistencies. To mitigate these risks, manufacturers employ statistical process control (SPC) tools, which monitor production data in real time, identifying any deviations from set quality parameters. By implementing SPC techniques, manufacturers can adjust the production process dynamically to maintain optimal conditions for reagent formulation. This approach ensures greater consistency across batches and reduces the chances of inaccurate screening results .

4. Reagent Stability and Cold Chain Logistics:

   The stability of reagents used in NBS is a key factor influencing the reproducibility of results, particularly during transport and storage. Many reagents are temperature-sensitive and require controlled conditions to maintain their integrity. Breakdowns in cold chain logistics can lead to reagent degradation, which may impact their sensitivity and lead to inconsistent results.

To address this, manufacturers employ IoT-enabled cold chain monitoring systems that provide real-time data on temperature and humidity conditions during shipping and storage. These systems alert distributors to any deviations from optimal conditions, ensuring that reagents arrive at their destination in a usable state. This level of control is essential for maintaining the reliability of NBS programs, especially as they scale globally .

IVDR and Its Impact on NBS Reagent Manufacturing

The transition to the European Union’s In Vitro Diagnostic Regulation (IVDR) represents a significant shift in the regulatory framework governing the manufacture and sale of diagnostic reagents, including those used in newborn screening. IVDR places greater emphasis on the quality, performance, and safety of in vitro diagnostic products, necessitating stringent oversight of reagent production and testing processes.

1. Enhanced Quality Requirements: 

   Under IVDR, manufacturers of NBS reagents are required to demonstrate that their products consistently meet high standards of safety and performance. This includes extensive documentation of manufacturing processes, post-market surveillance, and clinical evidence to ensure that reagents are safe and effective for their intended use. These requirements necessitate operational adjustments across manufacturing lines to comply with IVDR regulations, including the introduction of more robust quality assurance protocols and traceability systems .

2. Market Impact and Supply Chain Complexity: 

   IVDR has introduced additional regulatory hurdles that may delay the time-to-market for NBS reagents and increase the complexity of supply chains. Manufacturers must now navigate a more complex regulatory environment, ensuring compliance with IVDR requirements while maintaining seamless global distribution. This has prompted a shift toward more localized production and warehousing strategies, reducing reliance on centralized facilities and ensuring that reagents can be distributed efficiently across different regions .

Innovations in Newborn Screening: Expanding Detection Capabilities

In addition to operational improvements, there has been a wave of technological advancements in NBS that expand the range of disorders detectable at birth. Innovations such as next-generation sequencing (NGS), tandem mass spectrometry, and digital microfluidics are transforming the capabilities of NBS programs.

1. Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS):

   NGS allows for the detection of rare genetic conditions that were previously undetectable using traditional screening methods. With NGS, laboratories can sequence large portions of the genome at a relatively low cost, identifying mutations associated with a broad spectrum of inherited disorders. This expansion of NBS programs could lead to earlier detection and intervention for conditions such as cystic fibrosis, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), among others .

2. Advanced Biomarker Identification:

   Biomarker discovery through metabolomics and proteomics is also paving the way for new NBS tests that can detect subtle metabolic abnormalities indicative of disease. Mass spectrometry is being increasingly used to identify specific proteins or metabolites in dried blood spot samples, providing earlier and more accurate diagnoses for conditions such as lysosomal storage disorders and mitochondrial diseases .

In conclusion, achieving operational excellence in the manufacturing and distribution of NBS reagents is crucial for the success of newborn screening programs worldwide. By adopting automation, ensuring stringent quality control, and navigating complex regulatory frameworks like IVDR, manufacturers can ensure that NBS programs continue to deliver accurate and reliable results. At the same time, innovations in screening technologies are expanding the capabilities of NBS, allowing for the early detection of a broader range of disorders and improving public health outcomes globally.

References

1. Ritchie, S. (2021). "Ensuring Consistency in Manufacturing Processes: Importance of Automation." Journal of Diagnostics, 10(3), 354-361.

2. European Commission. (2022). "In Vitro Diagnostic Regulation (IVDR): Regulatory Landscape Overview." Available at: [ec.europa.eu](https://ec.europa.eu)

3. Smith, M., & Patel, A. (2020). "Advances in Next-Generation Sequencing for Newborn Screening." Clinical Genetics Journal, 15(5), 558-570.

New Born Screening - Current advances and methodologies in the globally

New Born Screening - Current advances and methodologies in the globally

Kalpeshkumar Hegde, 2024

Summary

Newborn screening (NBS) is a critical public health initiative designed to detect rare metabolic, endocrine, and genetic disorders in infants shortly after birth. This proactive approach facilitates early interventions that can prevent severe health complications, disabilities, or death. Since its inception in the 1960s, NBS has evolved from basic testing methods to advanced technologies, including next-generation sequencing (NGS), significantly enhancing its scope and effectiveness.[1][2] As NBS becomes standard practice in many countries, it has garnered attention for its potential to save lives and improve long-term health outcomes.

The historical progression of NBS highlights significant technological advancements, particularly the introduction of tandem mass spectrometry and NGS, which allow for more comprehensive and sensitive testing. NGS, in particular, has revolutionized the field by enabling the detection of genetic conditions that may not be identi-

fied through traditional metabolic screening methods.[3][4] The expansion of NBS programs worldwide is accompanied by community engagement efforts and public health policies aimed at increasing awareness and accessibility, ensuring that these vital services reach diverse populations effectively.[5][6][7]

Despite its successes, NBS faces notable challenges, including the need for stan- dardized methodologies and the complexities associated with interpreting vast genetic data. Ethical considerations also arise regarding informed consent, data pri- vacy, and the implications of genetic testing on family dynamics.[3][8] Additionally, the integration of NGS into existing frameworks presents logistical hurdles, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where access to screening programs remains limited due to infrastructural and educational barriers.[9][10]

The future of NBS lies in continuous technological advancements and international collaborations aimed at refining screening methodologies and improving access. As public health initiatives strive to enhance the effectiveness and reach of NBS, ongoing research and evaluation will be essential to ensure that these innovations translate into improved health outcomes for newborns globally.[4][5][10]

Historical Context

Newborn screening (NBS) has evolved significantly since its inception, transitioning from basic tests to advanced methodologies, including next-generation sequencing (NGS). Initially implemented in the 1960s, NBS programs aimed to identify metabolic disorders that, if left untreated, could lead to severe health issues or death[1][2]. These early programs primarily focused on a limited number of conditions, typically using blood spot testing to assess specific metabolic markers.

As technology progressed, the scope of newborn screening expanded. By the 1980s and 1990s, advances in biochemical assays enabled the detection of more disorders, which contributed to the establishment of standardized screening protocols across various regions[11]. The introduction of tandem mass spectrometry in the late 1990s allowed for simultaneous testing of multiple metabolites, significantly improving the sensitivity and specificity of screening tests[1].

In recent years, the integration of next-generation sequencing into newborn screen- ing has marked a transformative shift in the field. This method enables comprehen- sive genetic testing at a population level, allowing for the early detection of genetic conditions that may not be evident through traditional metabolic screening methods- [3][4]. Studies indicate that NGS can enhance the characterization of Mendelian disorders, providing crucial information for timely interventions[3][11].

The historical development of NBS has also been shaped by public health policies and community engagement efforts aimed at increasing awareness and accessibility of screening programs. Efforts such as regional workshops and educational cam- paigns have encouraged governmental support and community involvement, facili- tating the growth of NBS initiatives globally[5][6][7]. As a result, newborn screening is now a standard practice in many countries, with programs continually evolving to incorporate the latest technological advancements and address the diverse health needs of populations[1][2].

Current Methodologies

Overview of Newborn Screening

Newborn screening (NBS) programs are essential for early detection of rare metabolic, endocrine, and genetic disorders in infants, facilitating timely intervention to prevent severe health issues, disabilities, or death.[2] In the United States, virtually every newborn undergoes screening, which typically includes testing for several conditions through dried blood spots collected within 24 to 48 hours after birth to minimize false negatives.[2] The specifics of the screening process can vary by state, as each state determines the conditions to screen based on population needs and established cutoffs for positive results.[2]

Techniques and Innovations

Dried Blood Spot Screening

Dried blood spot (DBS) screening remains a cornerstone of NBS. Recent advance- ments have focused on enhancing the methodologies used in the extraction and analysis of DNA from DBS, as demonstrated by studies assessing various extraction techniques.[3][6] These improvements aim to increase the reliability and accuracy of test results while reducing false positives and negatives.[6]

Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)

Next-generation sequencing has emerged as a transformative technology in NBS, enabling comprehensive genomic analysis.[4] While the implementation of NGS poses challenges, such as increased data complexity and cost, its potential to identify a broader spectrum of disorders makes it a promising avenue for future research and practice.[3][4] The choice of sequencing type—whole genome sequencing (WGS), whole exome sequencing (WES), or targeted panels—affects data interpretation, multiplexing capacity, and overall cost efficiency.[3] There is ongoing discussion about the need for targeted approaches alongside NGS to maintain effective screen- ing programs.[3]

Second-Tier Testing

Second-tier testing is increasingly utilized to improve the specificity of newborn screenings.These additional tests are designed to further assess positive results and reduce false positives from initial screenings.[6] For example, specialized assays for conditions like Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) have been developed to enhance screening outcomes and the positive predic- tive value of tests.[6][12] These innovations are essential for ensuring that screening processes remain effective and efficient, allowing for the identification of true positive cases while minimizing unnecessary follow-up procedures.

Challenges and Future Directions

Despite these advancements, several challenges remain in the integration of new methodologies into existing NBS frameworks. There is a pressing need to standard- ize and calibrate techniques across laboratories to ensure consistent and reliable results.[12] Additionally, the exploration of artificial intelligence and machine learning in interpreting screening data holds potential for future methodologies, promising further enhancements to the accuracy and efficiency of newborn screening pro- grams.[12] As these technologies evolve, it is crucial to balance the benefits of advanced techniques with the need for established practices that prioritize the health and safety of newborns.

Advances in Technology

Integration of Genomic Technologies

The integration of advanced genomic technologies into newborn screening (NBS) presents both opportunities and challenges. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, particularly whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and whole-exome se- quencing (WES), are being increasingly considered for their potential to enhance NBS capabilities. However, concerns persist regarding the technical feasibility of these methods, including the accuracy and reliability of the data generated, as well as the interpretation of the results[3].

Challenges of Data Interpretation

Interpreting the vast amount of genetic data produced by WGS and WES is a signif- icant challenge. The complexity of genetic variants, many of which remain classified as variants of unknown significance (VUS), complicates the clinical interpretation
of results[3]. Variations in software and databases across laboratories can lead to inconsistent interpretations[3]. Some researchers advocate for the development of national databases to better characterize genetic variants and improve the under- standing of their significance within specific populations[3].

Technical Approaches to NGS

NGS approaches can vary widely, each presenting unique technical issues. The three primary methods include targeted gene panels, WES, and WGS. While targeted approaches focus on specific genes, they risk missing critical areas, leading to false-negative results. In contrast, WGS does not require gene capture, reducing the likelihood of gaps in data coverage[3]. Nonetheless, the large data output from WGS can be challenging to manage and analyze effectively.

Future Directions in Screening

The continuous evolution of technologies, including the advent of proteomic and metabolomic techniques, may further refine screening strategies, reducing false-pos- itive results and improving pathogenicity predictions[13]. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) with genomic methodologies is also anticipated to enhance pre- dictive capabilities in NBS, offering a promising avenue for the future of genetic screening[13].

Ethical Considerations

The ethical considerations surrounding newborn screening (NBS) are multifaceted and complex. One primary concern is the balance between genetic determinism and individual autonomy. Supporters of genetic determinism argue that if all genetic information is predetermined, this knowledge can lead to preventive measures, allowing healthcare providers to become "architects" of health rather than passive recipients of fate[1]. This perspective raises questions about the implications for personal choice and freedom, as it suggests a clear path dictated by genetics.

In addition, engaging the private sector in the delivery of quality maternal, new- born, and child health (MNCH) services introduces ethical dimensions regarding accountability and quality. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes three categories of private sector engagement: incorporating private actors in public health policy development, influencing private sector behavior through regulatory tools, and attributing private attributes to public sector organizations[8]. Ethical frameworks must ensure that these partnerships maintain high standards of care and do not compromise patient welfare.

Another layer of ethical complexity arises from the accessibility of health services, particularly for children in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Barriers to accessing healthcare can stem from various factors, including geographical location, availability of services, financial constraints, and social acceptability[10]. Addressing these barriers ethically requires a comprehensive understanding of both demand and supply-side factors to ensure equitable access to health interventions.

Finally, the sensitivity of genetic data necessitates strict ethical guidelines regarding permissions for access and data interpretation. Currently, clinical and laboratory ge- neticists primarily handle this interpretative burden, but there are discussions about whether medical doctors could take on some aspects of this responsibility[3]. As the landscape of NBS evolves, ethical considerations surrounding informed consent and data privacy remain paramount to safeguard the interests of patients and families.

Global Perspectives

Overview of Newborn Screening Challenges

Newborn screening (NBS) is an essential public health initiative aimed at the early identification and management of conditions that can lead to severe health issues in infants. However, implementing and sustaining NBS programs presents various challenges, particularly in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). These chal- lenges can be categorized into several areas, including logistical issues, coordination of care, and education for healthcare providers [5][7].

Geographic and Logistical Challenges

Geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas (GIDA) often face significant hur- dles in timely specimen submission and recall of screen-positive patients. Remote communities, such as those found in mountainous regions or isolated islands, compli- cate the coordination of necessary acute care management for infants already show- ing symptoms [5]. Ensuring follow-up care and the delivery of essential metabolic foods or medications adds to the logistical burden, sometimes necessitating collab- oration with military resources to navigate these challenges effectively [5].

International Collaborations

To address these challenges, international collaborations have proven beneficial. Examples include partnerships where islands in the Polynesian region access NBS through New Zealand's screening program. Furthermore, specialists from various Southeast Asian countries have participated in training programs based in Australia, and collaborations with European NBS programs have facilitated laboratory services in countries like Laos and Nepal [5]. These partnerships offer valuable insights

into establishing NBS systems in developing contexts and should be considered in planning processes.

Expansion and Policy Development

Successful NBS programs have often expanded their screening panels based on local epidemiology and needs. For instance, the Philippine Newborn Screening Program (PNBSP) expanded its screening panel to include additional conditions as program savings allowed for the procurement of necessary technology [5]. Such expansions reflect the need for continuous policy development and adaptation to local health demands.

Barriers to Implementation

In countries like Indonesia, various barriers impede the implementation of NBS, including insufficient prevalence data, ethical dilemmas, infrastructural challenges, and the need for a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis [9]. Government support, professional advocacy, and a well-established infrastructure are critical to overcom- ing these barriers and ensuring the effective delivery of NBS programs [9].

The Future of Newborn Screening

As the landscape of NBS continues to evolve, it is imperative that both public and private sectors engage in sustainable quality care initiatives. This collaboration is essential for developing systems capable of delivering high-quality care for mothers, newborns, and children at scale, especially in LMICs [8]. Through ongoing training, policy adjustments, and international partnerships, the goal of reducing infant mor- bidity and mortality rates via effective NBS can be achieved globally [7].

Ethical Considerations

The ethical considerations surrounding newborn screening (NBS) are multifaceted and complex. One primary concern is the balance between genetic determinism and individual autonomy. Supporters of genetic determinism argue that if all genetic information is predetermined, this knowledge can lead to preventive measures, allowing healthcare providers to become "architects" of health rather than passive recipients of fate[1]. This perspective raises questions about the implications for personal choice and freedom, as it suggests a clear path dictated by genetics.

In addition, engaging the private sector in the delivery of quality maternal, new- born, and child health (MNCH) services introduces ethical dimensions regarding accountability and quality. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes three categories of private sector engagement: incorporating private actors in public health policy development, influencing private sector behavior through regulatory tools, and attributing private attributes to public sector organizations[8]. Ethical frameworks must ensure that these partnerships maintain high standards of care and do not compromise patient welfare.

Another layer of ethical complexity arises from the accessibility of health services, particularly for children in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Barriers to accessing healthcare can stem from various factors, including geographical location, availability of services, financial constraints, and social acceptability[10]. Addressing these barriers ethically requires a comprehensive understanding of both demand and supply-side factors to ensure equitable access to health interventions.

Finally, the sensitivity of genetic data necessitates strict ethical guidelines regarding permissions for access and data interpretation. Currently, clinical and laboratory ge- neticists primarily handle this interpretative burden, but there are discussions about whether medical doctors could take on some aspects of this responsibility[3]. As the landscape of NBS evolves, ethical considerations surrounding informed consent and data privacy remain paramount to safeguard the interests of patients and families.

Future Directions

The integration of next-generation sequencing (NGS) into newborn screening (NBS) programs presents promising avenues for advancing pediatric health care. As tech- nology continues to evolve, NGS has the potential to enhance the identification
of genetic disorders in newborns, thereby allowing for earlier interventions and improved outcomes[4][3]. Future developments should focus on refining the criteria for selecting candidate conditions for NGS, ensuring they align with established guidelines like those outlined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the American College of Medical Genetics (ACMG)[5].

Enhancing Screening Criteria

To effectively incorporate NGS into NBS, conditions should demonstrate clear Mendelian inheritance patterns and established genotype-phenotype correlations. Knowledge of known genetic variants, high penetrance, and the availability of effec- tive presymptomatic interventions are essential factors for consideration[4]. Current NBS programs may include conditions that do not meet these stringent criteria; thus, a careful evaluation is required to ensure that only appropriate conditions are added to NGS screening panels[3].

International Collaboration

Collaboration between countries can play a crucial role in the successful implemen- tation of NGS in NBS. Initiatives that involve both commercial and non-commercial partnerships can facilitate training, technology transfer, and the sharing of best prac- tices. For instance, partnerships between developed and developing countries have already proven effective in establishing NBS programs in regions such as Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands[5]. Learning from these international experiences can guide future efforts and improve the efficiency of NBS systems worldwide.

Addressing Barriers to Access

Despite the potential benefits of NGS, significant barriers to access remain, partic- ularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). To maximize the impact of NBS programs, strategies must address both demand and supply-side challenges con- currently. This includes improving geographical accessibility and delivering services closer to home, as well as enhancing financial incentives for families to participate in screening programs[10]. Evidence suggests that combined interventions, such as using text message reminders and local service delivery, could effectively improve access to NBS in these settings[10].

Continuous Research and Evaluation

Continuous research into the effectiveness of NGS in NBS, including the assessment of intervention combinations and their impacts, will be vital for refining screening methodologies. Evaluating outcomes in diverse contexts will enhance our under- standing of how best to implement NGS in various healthcare systems and popula- tions[10]. As the body of evidence grows, it will inform guidelines and best practices for the integration of NGS into routine newborn screening protocols, ensuring that advances in technology translate into tangible benefits for newborn health globally[- 4][3].

References
[1]: Challenges of using next generation sequencing in newborn screening

[2]: Assessing interstate racial and socioeconomic disparities in newborn ...
[3]: Newborn screening: a review of history, recent advancements, and future ... [4]: Frontiers | Next-Generation Sequencing in Newborn Screening: A Review ... [5]: Next-generation Sequencing in Newborn Screening: A Review on Clinical ... [6]: Overcoming challenges in sustaining newborn screening in low-middle ...

[7]: 2023 APHL and ISNS Newborn Screening Symposium
[8]: Newborn screening progress in developing countries--overcoming internal ... [9]: Current State and Innovations in Newborn Screening: Continuing to Do ... [10]: Current State and Innovations in Newborn Screening: Continuing to Do ... [11]: An Insight into Indonesia's Challenges in Implementing Newborn ...
[12]: Private sector delivery of quality care for maternal, newborn and child ... [13]: A systematic review of strategies to increase access to health services ...

The Latest Insights on Mpox (Monkeypox): August 2024 Update

Mpox, a zoonotic orthopoxvirus previously known as monkeypox, continues to present substantial epidemiological challenges, particularly across the African continent. In 2024, the virus has demonstrated significant persistence and expansion, underscoring the need for continued vigilance and scientific inquiry into its transmission dynamics, pathogenicity, and control measures.

Epidemiological Update

As of mid-2024, Mpox outbreaks have escalated, particularly within the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), which has reported an excess of 14,000 confirmed cases and 511 fatalities. This represents a severe burden on the public health infrastructure, exacerbated by the virus's spread to neighboring countries such as Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda. These nations have documented their first instances of Mpox infection, linked phylogenetically to the ongoing outbreaks in the DRC, highlighting the regional spread of the clade 1b variant.

Globally, the transmission dynamics have shown that while the incidence of Mpox has diminished in non-endemic regions following the 2022 global outbreak, it remains a persistent threat. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 934 new laboratory-confirmed cases were reported across 26 countries in June 2024 alone, with the African region accounting for the majority of cases.

Molecular and Pathophysiological Insights

Mpox is primarily transmitted via close contact with infected individuals, animals, or contaminated materials, with sexual contact being a significant mode of transmission during recent outbreaks. The clinical presentation typically includes fever, lymphadenopathy, and a characteristic rash that progresses through macular, papular, vesicular, and pustular stages. The virus has been shown to evade host immune responses effectively, leading to varying degrees of morbidity depending on host factors such as immune status and pre-existing conditions.

Recent molecular studies have focused on the genomic evolution of the Mpox virus, particularly the clade 1b variant, which has been predominantly circulating in recent outbreaks. The virus's genetic variability and potential recombination events raise concerns about its adaptability and transmissibility, necessitating ongoing genomic surveillance and research.

Vaccination and Therapeutic Challenges

A critical barrier in managing the current Mpox outbreaks is the insufficient availability of vaccines and antiviral therapeutics in regions where the virus is most prevalent. The Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) has been engaged in efforts to secure 200,000 doses of the Mpox vaccine from Bavarian Nordic. However, this supply is markedly below the estimated requirement of 10 million doses needed to achieve adequate immunization coverage across affected regions.

The existing smallpox vaccine (ACAM2000) and the newer MVA-BN (Imvamune/Imvanex) vaccine have shown cross-protection against Mpox. However, their distribution has been uneven, with low- and middle-income countries facing significant challenges in procurement and deployment. Moreover, antiviral agents such as tecovirimat (ST-246) have demonstrated efficacy against orthopoxviruses, including Mpox, but their availability remains limited.

Conclusion and Future Directions

The persistence and spread of Mpox in 2024 highlight the necessity for robust public health interventions, including enhanced surveillance, equitable vaccine distribution, and intensified research into the virus's molecular biology and immunopathogenesis. The ongoing situation underscores the importance of a coordinated global response to prevent further morbidity and mortality, particularly in regions with limited healthcare resources. 

Future research should focus on understanding the virus's evolution, improving vaccine efficacy and coverage, and developing new antiviral treatments to mitigate the impact of this re-emerging pathogen on global public health.

Standards & Certifications Applicable to Medical Device & Pharma Sector

 

    1: EXCIPACT Certification

    2: EFfCI Certfication

    3: ISO 13485:2015 Quality Management Systems for Medical Devices

    4: GMP Pharma for Good Manufacturing Practices

    5: GDP - Good Distribution Practices

    6: ISO 135378:2017 - Packaging for Medical Devices

    7: CE - Medical Devices including 

    8: Invitro Diagnostic Medical device Regulation (EU) 2017/746 (IVDR)

Face Masks to Combat Coronavirus (COVID-19)-Processing, Roles, Requirements, Efficacy, Risk and Sustainability

Face Masks to Combat Coronavirus (COVID-19)-Processing, Roles, Requirements, Efficacy, Risk and Sustainability    

Rahman MZ, Hoque ME, Alam MR, Rouf MA, Khan SI, Xu H, Ramakrishna S. Face Masks to Combat Coronavirus (COVID-19)-Processing, Roles, Requirements, Efficacy, Risk and Sustainability. Polymers (Basel). 

2022 Mar 23;14(7):1296. doi: 10.3390/polym14071296. PMID: 35406172; PMCID: PMC9003287.

ABSTRACT: 

Increasingly prevalent respiratory infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19) have posed severe threats to public health. Viruses including coronavirus, influenza, and so on can cause respiratory infections. A pandemic may potentially emerge owing to the worldwide spread of the virus through persistent human-to-human transmission. However, transmission pathways may vary; respiratory droplets or airborne virus-carrying particles can have a key role in transmitting infections to humans. In conjunction with social distancing, hand cleanliness, and other preventative measures, the use of face masks is considered to be another scientific approach to combat ubiquitous coronavirus. Different types of face masks are produced using a range of materials (e.g., polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, polycarbonate, polyurethane, polystyrene, polyester and polyethylene) and manufacturing techniques (woven, knitted, and non-woven) that provide different levels of protection to the users. However, the efficacy and proper disposal/management of the used face masks, particularly the ones made of non-biodegradable polymers, pose great environmental concerns. This review compiles the recent advancements of face masks, covering their requirements, materials and techniques used, efficacy, challenges, risks, and sustainability towards further enhancement of the quality and performance of face masks.

AFFILIATIONS:

• 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST), Dhaka 1208, Bangladesh.
• 2Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh.
• 3Department of Knitwear Manufacturing and Technology, BGMEA University of Fashion and Technology (BUFT), Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh.
• 4Department of Biobased Materials Science, Kyoto Institute of Technology (KIT), Matsugasaki Hashikamicho 1, Sakyoku, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan.
• 5Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore 117575, Singapore.
• 
  

REFERENCES:

1. 1. Wei Z.-Y., Qiao R., Chen J., Huang J., Wu H., Wang W.-J., Yu H., Xu J., Wang C., Gu C.-H. The influence of pre-existing hypertension on coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Epidemiol. Infect. 2021;149:e4. doi: 10.1017/S0950268820003118. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
2. 1. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic. 2019. [(accessed on 5 February 2022)]. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019.
3. 1. WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. 2020. [(accessed on 5 February 2022)]. Available online: https://covid19.who.int/
4. 1. Abera A., Belay H., Zewude A., Gidey B., Nega D., Dufera B., Abebe A., Endriyas T., Getachew B., Birhanu H. Establishment of COVID-19 testing laboratory in resource-limited settings: Challenges and prospects reported from Ethiopia. Glob. Health Action. 2020;13:1841963. doi: 10.1080/16549716.2020.1841963. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
5. 1. Rodríguez-Rey R., Garrido-Hernansaiz H., Collado S. Psychological impact and associated factors during the initial stage of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic among the general population in Spain. Front. Psychol. 2020;11:1540. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01540. - DOI -PMC - PubMed
6. 1. Gupta M.D., Girish M., Yadav G., Shankar A., Yadav R. Coronavirus disease 2019 and the cardiovascular system: Impacts and implications. Indian Heart J. 2020;72:1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.ihj.2020.03.006. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
7. 1. Giannis D., Geropoulos G., Matenoglou E., Moris D. Impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on healthcare workers: Beyond the risk of exposure. Postgrad. Med. J. 2021;97:326–328. doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-137988. - DOI - PubMed
8. 1. Rahman T., Khandakar A., Hoque M.E., Ibtehaz N., Kashem S.B., Masud R., Shampa L., Hasan M.M., Islam M.T., Al-Madeed S. Development and Validation of an Early Scoring System for Prediction of Disease Severity in COVID-19 using Complete Blood Count Parameters. IEEE Access. 2021;9:120422–120441. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3105321. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
9. 1. Gorain B., Choudhury H., Molugulu N., Athawale R.B., Kesharwani P. Fighting strategies against the novel coronavirus pandemic: Impact on global economy. Front. Public Health. 2020;8:606129. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.606129. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
10. 1. Bhat B.A., Khan S., Manzoor S., Niyaz A., Tak H., Anees S., Gull S., Ahmad I. A study on impact of COVID-19 lockdown on psychological health, economy and social life of people in Kashmir. Int. J. Sci. Healthc. Res. 2020;5:36–46.
11. 1. Sohrabi C., Alsafi Z., O’neill N., Khan M., Kerwan A., Al-Jabir A., Iosifidis C., Agha R. World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) Int. J. Surg. 2020;76:71–76. doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034. - DOI - PMC -PubMed
12. 1. Shi L., Lu Z.-A., Que J.-Y., Huang X.-L., Liu L., Ran M.-S., Gong Y.-M., Yuan K., Yan W., Sun Y.-K. Prevalence of and risk factors associated with mental health symptoms among the general population in China during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. JAMA Netw. Open. 2020;3:e2014053. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.14053. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
13. 1. Sabino-Silva R., Jardim A.C.G., Siqueira W.L. Coronavirus COVID-19 impacts to dentistry and potential salivary diagnosis. Clin. Oral Investig. 2020;24:1619–1621. doi: 10.1007/s00784-020-03248-x. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
14. 1. Hiscott J., Alexandridi M., Muscolini M., Tassone E., Palermo E., Soultsioti M., Zevini A. The global impact of the coronavirus pandemic. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;53:1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.05.010. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
15. 1. Ares G., Bove I., Vidal L., Brunet G., Fuletti D., Arroyo Á., Blanc M.V. The experience of social distancing for families with children and adolescents during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Uruguay: Difficulties and opportunities. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 2021;121:105906. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105906. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
16. 1. Ganesan B., Al-Jumaily A., Fong K.N., Prasad P., Meena S.K., Tong R.K.-Y. Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak quarantine, isolation, and lockdown policies on mental health and suicide. Front. Psychiatry. 2021;12:565190. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.565190. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
17. 1. Qiu Y., Chen X., Shi W. Impacts of social and economic factors on the transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China. J. Popul. Econ. 2020;33:1127–1172. doi: 10.1007/s00148-020-00778-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
18. 1. Milman E., Lee S.A., Neimeyer R.A. Social isolation and the mitigation of coronavirus anxiety: The mediating role of meaning. Death Stud. 2020;46:1–13. doi: 10.1080/07481187.2020.1775362. - DOI - PubMed
19. 1. Helm D. The environmental impacts of the coronavirus. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2020;76:21–38. doi: 10.1007/s10640-020-00426-z. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
20. 1. Sarkodie S.A., Owusu P.A. Global assessment of environment, health and economic impact of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2021;23:5005–5015. doi: 10.1007/s10668-020-00801-2. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
21. 1. Isaifan R. The dramatic impact of Coronavirus outbreak on air quality: Has it saved as much as it has killed so far? Glob. J. Environ. Sci. Manag. 2020;6:275–288.
22. 1. Rupani P.F., Nilashi M., Abumalloh R., Asadi S., Samad S., Wang S. Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) and its natural environmental impacts. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020;17:4655–4666. doi: 10.1007/s13762-020-02910-x. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
23. 1. Sukharev O.S. Economic crisis as a consequence COVID-19 virus attack: Risk and damage assessment. Quant. Financ. Econ. 2020;4:274–293. doi: 10.3934/QFE.2020013. - DOI
24. 1. Grignoli N., Petrocchi S., Bernardi S., Massari I., Traber R., Malacrida R., Gabutti L. Influence of empathy disposition and risk perception on the psychological impact of lockdown during the coronavirus disease pandemic outbreak. Front. Public Health. 2020;8:567337. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.567337. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
25. 1. Howard J., Huang A., Li Z., Tufekci Z., Zdimal V., van der Westhuizen H.-M., von Delft A., Price A., Fridman L., Tang L.-H. An evidence review of face masks against COVID-19. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2021;118:e2014564118. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2014564118. - DOI - PMC -PubMed
26. 1. WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Advice for the Public: When and How to Use Masks. [(accessed on 5 February 2022)]. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-f....
27. 1. Wu L.-T. A Treatise on Pneumonic Plague. League of Nations Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 1926. A treatise on pneumonic plague.
28. 1. Goh L., Ho T., Phua K. Wisdom and western science: The work of Dr Wu Lien-Teh. Asia Pac. J. Public Health. 1987;1:99–109. doi: 10.1177/101053958700100123. - DOI - PubMed
29. 1. Wang Y., Tian H., Zhang L., Zhang M., Guo D., Wu W., Zhang X., Kan G.L., Jia L., Huo D. Reduction of secondary transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in households by face mask use, disinfection and social distancing: A cohort study in Beijing, China. BMJ Glob. Health. 2020;5:e002794. doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002794. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
30. 1. Usher Institute, The University of Edinburgh Does the Use of Face Masks in the General Population Make a Difference to Spread of Infection? 2020. [(accessed on 5 February 2022)]. Available online: https://www.ed.ac.uk/files/atoms/files/uncover_003-03_summary_-_facemask....
31. 1. Gupta M., Gupta K., Gupta S. The use of face masks by the general population to prevent transmission of COVID-19 infection: A systematic review. medRxiv. 2020 doi: 10.1101/2020.05.01.20087064. - DOI
32. 1. Chu D.K., Akl E.A., Duda S., Solo K., Yaacoub S., Schünemann H.J., El-harakeh A., Bognanni A., Lotfi T., Loeb M. Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2020;395:1973–1987. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31142-9. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
33. 1. Wu J., Xu F., Zhou W., Feikin D.R., Lin C.-Y., He X., Zhu Z., Liang W., Chin D.P., Schuchat A. Risk factors for SARS among persons without known contact with SARS patients, Beijing, China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004;10:210. doi: 10.3201/eid1002.030730. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
34. 1. Jefferson T., Del Mar C.B., Dooley L., Ferroni E., Al-Ansary L.A., Bawazeer G.A., Van Driel M.L., Jones M.A., Thorning S., Beller E.M., et al. Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2020;11:CD006207. - PMC -PubMed
35. 1. MacIntyre C.R., Chughtai A.A. A rapid systematic review of the efficacy of face masks and respirators against coronaviruses and other respiratory transmissible viruses for the community, healthcare workers and sick patients. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2020;108:103629. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103629. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
36. 1. MacIntyre C.R., Dwyer D., Seale H., Fasher M., Booy R., Cheung P., Ovdin N., Browne G. The first randomized, controlled clinical trial of mask use in households to prevent respiratory virus transmission. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2008;12:e328. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.05.877. - DOI
37. 1. Suess T., Remschmidt C., Schink S.B., Schweiger B., Nitsche A., Schroeder K., Doellinger J., Milde J., Haas W., Koehler I. The role of facemasks and hand hygiene in the prevention of influenza transmission in households: Results from a cluster randomised trial; Berlin, Germany, 2009–2011. BMC Infect. Dis. 2012;12:1–16. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-26. - DOI -PMC - PubMed
38. 1. Cowling B.J., Chan K.-H., Fang V.J., Cheng C.K., Fung R.O., Wai W., Sin J., Seto W.H., Yung R., Chu D.W. Face masks and hand hygiene to prevent influenza transmission in households: A cluster randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 2009;151:437–446. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-151-7-200910060-00142. - DOI - PubMed
39. 1. Aiello A.E., Murray G.F., Perez V., Coulborn R.M., Davis B.M., Uddin M., Shay D.K., Waterman S.H., Monto A.S. Mask use, hand hygiene, and seasonal influenza-like illness among young adults: A randomized intervention trial. J. Infect. Dis. 2010;201:491–498. doi: 10.1086/650396. - DOI - PubMed
40. 1. Aiello A.E., Perez V., Coulborn R.M., Davis B.M., Uddin M., Monto A.S. Face masks, hand hygiene, and influenza among young adults: A randomized intervention trial. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e29744. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029744. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
41. 1. Higgins J.P., Thomas J., Chandler J., Cumpston M., Li T., Page M.J., Welch V.A. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. John Wiley Sons; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2019. - PubMed
42. 1. Robertson P. Comparison of Mask Standards, Ratings, and Filtration Effectiveness. 2021. [(accessed on 1 January 2022)]. Available online: https://smartairfilters.com/en/blog/comparison-mask-standards-rating-eff...
43. 1. Ghosh S. Composite nonwovens in medical applications. Compos. Non-Woven Mater. 2014:211–224. doi: 10.1533/9780857097750.211. - DOI
44. 1. Garcia R.A., Stevanovic T., Berthier J., Njamen G., Tolnai B., Achim A. Cellulose, Nanocellulose, and Antimicrobial Materials for the Manufacture of Disposable Face Masks: A Review. BioResources. 2021;16:4321–4353. doi: 10.15376/biores.16.2.Garcia. - DOI
45. 1. Ogbuoji E.A., Zaky A.M., Escobar I.C. Advanced Research and Development of Face Masks and Respirators Pre and Post the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic: A Critical Review. Polymers. 2021;13:1998. doi: 10.3390/polym13121998. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
46. 1. Konda A., Prakash A., Moss G.A., Schmoldt M., Grant G.D., Guha S. Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks. ACS Nano. 2020;14:6339–6347. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03252. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
47. 1. Occupational Exposure to COVID-19; Emergency Temporary Standard. [(accessed on 1 May 2021)];2021 Available online: https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/06/21/2021-12428/occupati....
48. 1. 3M Company . Comparison of P2, FFP2, KN95, and N95 and Other Filtering Facepiece Respirator Classes. 3M Company; St. Paul, MN, USA: 2021.
49. 1. NIOSH-Approved Particulate Filtering Facepiece Respirators. [(accessed on 3 October 2021)];2021 Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/topics/respirators/disp_part/default.html.
50. 1. Ottawa Public Health . Ways to Have Better Fit and Extra Protection with Cloth and Disposable Masks. Ottawa Public Health; Nepean, ON, Canada: 2022. [(accessed on 8 January 2022)]. Available online: https://www.ottawapublichealth.ca/en/public-health-topics/masks.aspx.
51. 1. Matuschek C., Moll F., Fangerau H., Fischer J.C., Zänker K., van Griensven M., Schneider M., Kindgen-Milles D., Knoefel W.T., Lichtenberg A. Face masks: Benefits and risks during the COVID-19 crisis. Eur. J. Med. Res. 2020;25:1–8. doi: 10.1186/s40001-020-00430-5. - DOI -PMC - PubMed
52. 1. Armentano I., Barbanera M., Carota E., Crognale S., Marconi M., Rossi S., Rubino G., Scungio M., Taborri J., Calabro G. Polymer materials for respiratory protection: Processing, end use, and testing methods. ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 2021;3:531–548. doi: 10.1021/acsapm.0c01151. - DOI
53. 1. Wibisono Y., Fadila C.R., Saiful S., Bilad M.R. Facile approaches of polymeric face masks reuse and reinforcements for micro-aerosol droplets and viruses filtration: A review. Polymers. 2020;12:2516. doi: 10.3390/polym12112516. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
54. 1. Li J., Wang W., Jiang R., Guo C. Antiviral Electrospun Polymer Composites: Recent Advances and Opportunities for Tackling COVID-19. Front. Mater. 2021;8:470. doi: 10.3389/fmats.2021.773205. - DOI
55. 1. Rahman M.Z. Vibration and Damping Behavior of Biocomposites. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL, USA: 2022. Influence of Fiber Treatment on the Damping Performance of Plant Fiber Composites; pp. 113–135.
56. 1. Rahman M.Z., Mace B.R., Jayaraman K. Vibration damping of natural fibre-reinforced composite materials; Proceedings of the 17th European Conference on Composite Material; Munich, Germany. 26–30 June 2016.
57. 1. Selvaranjan K., Navaratnam S., Rajeev P., Ravintherakumaran N. Environmental challenges induced by extensive use of face masks during COVID-19: A review and potential solutions. Environ. Chall. 2021;3:100039. doi: 10.1016/j.envc.2021.100039. - DOI
58. 1. Rahman M.Z. Mechanical and damping performances of flax fibre composites–A review. Compos. Part C Open Access. 2021;4:100081. doi: 10.1016/j.jcomc.2020.100081. - DOI
59. 1. Rahman M.Z., Jayaraman K., Mace B.R. Vibration damping of flax fibre-reinforced polypropylene composites. Fibers Polym. 2017;18:2187–2195. doi: 10.1007/s12221-017-7418-y. - DOI
60. 1. Seidi F., Deng C., Zhong Y., Liu Y., Huang Y., Li C., Xiao H. Functionalized Masks: Powerful Materials against COVID-19 and Future Pandemics. Small. 2021;17:2102453. doi: 10.1002/smll.202102453. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
61. 1. Rahman M.Z., Jayaraman K., Mace B.R. Impact energy absorption of flax fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. Polym. Compos. 2018;39:4165–4175. doi: 10.1002/pc.24486. -DOI
62. 1. Rahman M.Z., Jayaraman K., Mace B.R. Influence of damping on the bending and twisting modes of flax fibre-reinforced polypropylene composite. Fibers Polym. 2018;19:375–382. doi: 10.1007/s12221-018-7588-7. - DOI
63. 1. Jung S., Lee S., Dou X., Kwon E.E. Valorization of disposable COVID-19 mask through the thermo-chemical process. Chem. Eng. J. 2021;405:126658. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.126658. -DOI - PMC - PubMed
64. 1. Rahman M.Z. Fabrication, Morphologies and Properties of Single Polymer Composites Based on LLDPE, PP, and CNT Loaded PBT. University of Auckland; Auckland, New Zealand: 2013.
65. 1. Rahman M.Z. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Auckland; Auckland, New Zealand: 2017. Static and Dynamic Characterisation of Flax Fibre-Reinforced Polypropylene Composites.
66. 1. Amini G., Karimi M., Zokaee Ashtiani F. Hybrid electrospun membrane based on poly (vinylidene fluoride)/poly (acrylic acid)–poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogel for waterproof and breathable applications. J. Ind. Text. 2020:1528083720904675. doi: 10.1177/1528083720904675. - DOI
67. 1. O’Dowd K., Nair K.M., Forouzandeh P., Mathew S., Grant J., Moran R., Bartlett J., Bird J., Pillai S.C. Face masks and respirators in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic: A review of current materials, advances and future perspectives. Materials. 2020;13:3363. doi: 10.3390/ma13153363. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
68. 1. Adanur S., Jayswal A. Filtration mechanisms and manufacturing methods of face masks: An overview. J. Ind. Text. 2020;22:1528083720980169. doi: 10.1177/1528083720980169. - DOI
69. 1. Kulmala I., Heinonen K., Salo S. Improving Filtration Efficacy of Medical Face Masks. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2021;21:210043. doi: 10.4209/aaqr.210043. - DOI
70. 1. Shimasaki N., Okaue A., Morimoto M., Uchida Y., Koshiba T., Tsunoda K., Arakawa S., Shinohara K. A multifaceted evaluation on the penetration resistance of protective clothing fabrics against viral liquid drops without pressure. Biocontrol Sci. 2020;25:9–16. doi: 10.4265/bio.25.9. - DOI - PubMed
71. 1. Chua M.H., Cheng W., Goh S.S., Kong J., Li B., Lim J.Y., Mao L., Wang S., Xue K., Yang L. Face masks in the new COVID-19 normal: Materials, testing, and perspectives. Research. 2020;2020:7286735. doi: 10.34133/2020/7286735. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
72. 1. Babaahmadi V., Amid H., Naeimirad M., Ramakrishna S. Biodegradable and multifunctional surgical face masks: A brief review on demands during COVID-19 pandemic, recent developments, and future perspectives. Sci. Total Environ. 2021;798:149233. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149233. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
73. 1. Mukhopadhyay A. Composite Non-Woven Materials. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2014. Composite nonwovens in filters: Applications; pp. 164–210.
74. 1. Davison A.M. Pathogen inactivation and filtration efficacy of a new anti-microbial and anti-viral surgical facemask and N95 against dentistry-associated microorganisms. Int. Dent. Australas. Ed. 2012;7:36–42.
75. 1. Chellamani K., Veerasubramanian D., Balaji R.V. Surgical face masks: Manufacturing methods and classification. J. Acad. Ind. Res. 2013;2:320–324.
76. 1. Zhao M., Liao L., Xiao W., Yu X., Wang H., Wang Q., Lin Y.L., Kilinc-Balci F.S., Price A., Chu L. Household materials selection for homemade cloth face coverings and their filtration efficiency enhancement with triboelectric charging. Nano Lett. 2020;20:5544–5552. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c02211. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
77. 1. Essa W.K., Yasin S.A., Saeed I.A., Ali G.A. Nanofiber-Based Face Masks and Respirators as COVID-19 Protection: A Review. Membranes. 2021;11:250. doi: 10.3390/membranes11040250. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
78. 1. Epps H.H., Leonas K.K. Pore size and air permeability of four nonwoven fabrics. Int. Nonwovens J. 2000;9:18–22. doi: 10.1177/1558925000OS-900215. - DOI
79. 1. Verma D. Effectiveness of Masks: Fast Answers with Automated SEM Analysis. Nanoscience Instruments; Phoenix, AZ, USA: 2021. [(accessed on 15 January 2022)]. Available online: https://www.nanoscience.com/applications/materials-science/effectiveness...
80. 1. Nuge T., Tshai K.Y., Lim S.S., Nordin N., Hoque M.E. Characterization and optimization of the mechanical properties of electrospun gelatin nanofibrous scaffolds. World J. Eng. 2020;17:12–20. doi: 10.1108/WJE-04-2019-0119. - DOI
81. 1. Majumder S., Sharif A., Hoque M.E. Electrospun cellulose acetate nanofiber: Characterization and applications. In: Faris M.A., Sapuan S.M., editors. Advanced Processing, Properties, and Applications of Starch and Other Bio-Based Polymers. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2020. pp. 139–155.
82. 1. Pradeep S.A., Kumar G.P., Phani A.R., Prasad R.G.S.V., Hoque M.E., Raghavendra H.L. Fabrication, characterization and in vitro osteogenic potential of polyvinyl pyrrolidone-titania (PVP-TiO) nanofibers. Anal. Chem. Lett. 2015;5:61–72. doi: 10.1080/22297928.2015.1048728. - DOI
83. 1. Hoque M.E., Peiris A.M., Rahman S.M.A., Wahab M.A. New Generation Antibacterial Nanofibrous Membrane For Potential Water Filtration. Curr. Anal. Chem. 2018;14:278–284. doi: 10.2174/1573411013666171009162832. - DOI
84. 1. Alayande A.B., Kang Y., Jang J., Jee H., Lee Y.-G., Kim I.S., Yang E. Antiviral Nanomaterials for Designing Mixed Matrix Membranes. Membranes. 2021;11:458. doi: 10.3390/membranes11070458. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
85. 1. Palmieri L., Vanacore N., Donfrancesco C., Lo Noce C., Canevelli M., Punzo O., Raparelli V., Pezzotti P., Riccardo F., Bella A., et al. Clinical characteristics of hospitalized individuals dying with COVID-19 by age group in Italy. J. Gerontol. Ser. A. 2020;75:1796–1800. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glaa146. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
86. 1. Stan A., Steiner S., Majeed S., Weber S.S., Gosh S., Semren T.Ž., Guy P.A., Lebrun S., Steinhauser J., Tardy Y., et al. Aerosol filtration testing of fabrics for development of reusable face masks. Aerosol Air Qual. Research. 2021;21:210052. doi: 10.4209/aaqr.210052. - DOI
87. 1. Tsai P.P., Schreuder-Gibson H., Gibson P. Different electrostatic methods for making electret filters. J. Electrost. 2002;54:333–341. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3886(01)00160-7. - DOI
88. 1. Chowdhury M.A., Shuvho M.B., Shahid M.A., Haque A.M., Kashem M.A., Lam S.S., Ong H.C., Uddin M.A., Mofijur M. Prospect of biobased antiviral face mask to limit the coronavirus outbreak. Environ. Res. 2021;192:110294. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110294. - DOI - PMC -PubMed
89. 1. Jain M., Kim S.T., Xu C., Li H., Rose G. Efficacy and use of cloth masks: A scoping review. Cureus. 2020;12:10423. doi: 10.7759/cureus.10423. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
90. 1. Darby S., Chulliyallipalil K., Przyjalgowski M., McGowan P., Jeffers S., Giltinan A., Lewis L., Smith N., Sleator R.D. COVID-19: Mask efficacy is dependent on both fabric and fit. Future Microbiol. 2021;16:5–11. doi: 10.2217/fmb-2020-0292. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
91. 1. Gierthmuehlen M., Kuhlenkoetter B., Parpaley Y., Gierthmuehlen S., Köhler D., Dellweg D. Evaluation and discussion of handmade face-masks and commercial diving-equipment as personal protection in pandemic scenarios. PLoS ONE. 2020;15:e0237899. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237899. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
92. 1. Formentini G., Rodríguez N.B., Favi C., Marconi M. Challenging the engineering design process for the development of facial masks in the constraint of the COVID-19 pandemic. Procedia Cirp. 2021;100:660–665. doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2021.05.140. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
93. 1. Lindsley W.G., Blachere F.M., Law B.F., Beezhold D.H., Noti J.D. Efficacy of face masks, neck gaiters and face shields for reducing the expulsion of simulated cough-generated aerosols. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2021;55:449–457. doi: 10.1080/02786826.2020.1862409. - DOI
94. 1. Mboowa G., Semugenze D., Nakabuye H., Bulafu D., Aruhomukama D. Efficacy of Face Masks Used in Uganda: A Laboratory-Based Inquiry during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2021;104:1703. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0030. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
95. 1. Sharma S., Pinto R., Saha A., Chaudhuri S., Basu S. On secondary atomization and blockage of surrogate cough droplets in single-and multilayer face masks. Sci. Adv. 2021;7:eabf0452. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abf0452. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
96. 1. Teesing G.R., van Straten B., de Man P., Horeman-Franse T. Is there an adequate alternative to commercially manufactured face masks? A comparison of various materials and forms. J. Hosp. Infect. 2020;106:246–253. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.07.024. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
97. 1. Wilson A.M., Abney S.E., King M.F., Weir M.H., López-García M., Sexton J.D., Dancer S.J., Proctor J., Noakes C.J., Reynolds K.A. COVID-19 and use of non-traditional masks: How do various materials compare in reducing the risk of infection for mask wearers? J. Hosp. Infect. 2020;105:640–642. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.05.036. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
98. 1. Fischer E.P., Fischer M.C., Grass D., Henrion I., Warren W.S., Westman E. Low-cost measurement of face mask efficacy for filtering expelled droplets during speech. Sci. Adv. 2020;6:1–5. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abd3083. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
99. 1. Aydin O., Emon B., Cheng S., Hong L., Chamorro L.P., Saif M.T.A. Performance of fabrics for home-made masks against the spread of COVID-19 through droplets: A quantitative mechanistic study. Extrem. Mech. Lett. 2020;40:1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.eml.2020.100924. - DOI -PMC - PubMed
100. 1. Serfozo N., Ondrácek J., Zíková N., Lazaridis M., Ždímal V. Size-resolved penetration of filtering materials from CE-marked filtering facepiece respirators. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2017;17:1305–1315. doi: 10.4209/aaqr.2016.09.0390. - DOI - PubMed
101. 1. Ippolito M., Vitale F., Accurso G., Iozzo P., Gregoretti C., Giarratano A., Cortegiani A. Medical masks and Respirators for the Protection of Healthcare Workers from SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses. Pulmonology. 2020;26:204–212. doi: 10.1016/j.pulmoe.2020.04.009. - DOI - PMC -PubMed
102. 1. Scully J.R., Hutchison M., Santucci R.J., Jr. The COVID-19 Pandemic, Part 2: Understanding the efficacy of oxidized copper compounds in suppressing infectious aerosol-based virus transmission. Corrosion. 2021;77:370–375. doi: 10.5006/3827. - DOI
103. 1. Bhimaraju H., Jain R., Nag N. Low-Cost Enhancement of Facial Mask Filtration to Prevent Transmission of COVID-19. Biom. Biostat. Int. J. 2020;9:169–177. doi: 10.15406/bbij.2020.09.00316. - DOI
104. 1. Lima M.M.D.S., Cavalcante F.M.L., Macêdo T.S., Galindo-Neto N.M., Caetano J.Á., Barros L.M. Cloth face masks to prevent COVID-19 and other respiratory infections. Rev. Lat. Am. De Enferm. 2020;28 doi: 10.1590/1518-8345.4537.3353. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
105. 1. Grover C. Efficacy of face masks depends on spatial relation between host and recipient and who is being protected. BMJ. 2020;369:m2016. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m2016. - DOI - PubMed
106. 1. Ronen A., Rotter H., Elisha S., Sevilia S., Parizer B., Hafif N., Manor A. Investigation of the protection efficacy of face shields against aerosol cough droplets. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2021;18:72–83. doi: 10.1080/15459624.2020.1854459. - DOI - PubMed
107. 1. Jefferson T., Foxlee R., Del Mar C., Dooley L., Ferroni E., Hewak B., Prabhala A., Nair S., Rivetti A. Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses: Systematic review. BMJ. 2008;336:77–80. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39393.510347.BE. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
108. 1. Zhou S.S., Lukula S., Chiossone C., Nims R.W., Suchmann D.B., Ijaz M.K. Assessment of a respiratory face mask for capturing air pollutants and pathogens including human influenza and rhinoviruses. J. Thorac. Dis. 2018;10:2059. doi: 10.21037/jtd.2018.03.103. - DOI - PMC -PubMed
109. 1. Verbeek J.H., Rajamaki B., Ijaz S., Sauni R., Toomey E., Blackwood B., Tikka C., Ruotsalainen J.H., Balci F.S.K. Personal protective equipment for preventing highly infectious diseases due to exposure to contaminated body fluids in healthcare staff. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2020;4:CD011621. - PMC - PubMed
110. 1. Tirupathi R., Bharathidasan K., Palabindala V., Salim S.A., Al-Tawfiq J.A. Comprehensive review of mask utility and challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. Infez Med. 2020;28:57–63. - PubMed
111. 1. Tucho G.T., Kumsa D.M. Universal Use of Face Masks and Related Challenges During COVID-19 in Developing Countries. Risk Manag. Healthc. Policy. 2021;14:511–517. doi: 10.2147/RMHP.S298687. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
112. 1. De Man P., van Straten B., van den Dobbelsteen J., Van Der Eijk A., Horeman T., Koeleman H. Sterilization of disposable face masks by means of standardized dry and steam sterilization processes; an alternative in the fight against mask shortages due to COVID-19. J. Hosp. Infect. 2020;105:356–357. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2020.04.001. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
113. 1. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control . Cloth Masks and Mask Sterilisation as Options in Case of Shortage of Surgical Masks and Respirators. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control; Stockholm, Sweden: 2020.
114. 1. Lowe J.J., Paladino K.D., Farke J.D., Boulter K., Cawcutt K., Emodi M., Gibbs S., Hankins R., Hinkle L., Micheels T., et al. N95 Filtering Facepiece Respirator Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (Uvgi) Process for Decontamination and Reuse. University of Nebraska Medical Center; Omaha, NE, USA: 2020. pp. 1–19.
115. 1. Ma Q.X., Shan H., Zhang C.M., Zhang H.L., Li G.M., Yang R.M., Chen J.M. Decontamination of face masks with steam for mask reuse in fighting the pandemic COVID-19: Experimental supports. J. Med. Virol. 2020;92:1971–1974. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25921. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
116. 1. Schwartz A., Stiegel M., Greeson N., Vogel A., Thomann W., Brown M., Sempowski G.D., Alderman T.S., Condreay J.P., Burch J., et al. Decontamination and reuse of N95 respirators with hydrogen peroxide vapor to address worldwide personal protective equipment shortages during the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic. Appl. Biosaf. 2020;25:67–70. doi: 10.1177/1535676020919932. - DOI
117. 1. Wehlage D., Blattner H., Sabantina L., Böttjer R., Grothe T., Rattenholl A., Gudermann F., Lütkemeyer D., Ehrmann A. Sterilization of PAN/gelatin nanofibrous mats for cell growth. Tekstilec. 2019;62:77–88. doi: 10.14502/Tekstilec2019.62.78-88. - DOI
118. 1. Mackenzie D. Reuse of N95 Masks. Engineering. 2020;6:593–596. doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2020.04.003. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
119. 1. Coffey C., D’Alessandro M.M., Cichowicz J.K. Respiratory Protection During Outbreaks: Respirators versus Surgical Mask. [(accessed on 10 January 2022)]; Available online: https://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2020/04/09/masks-v-respirators/
120. 1. Das O., Neisiany R.E., Capezza A.J., Hedenqvist M.S., Försth M., Xu Q., Jiang L., Ji D., Ramakrishna S. The need for fully bio-based facemasks to counter coronavirus outbreaks: A perspective. Sci. Total Environ. 2020;736:139611. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139611. - DOI -PMC - PubMed
121. 1. Zhang D., Liu X., Huang W., Li J., Wang C., Zhang D., Zhang C. Microplastic pollution in deep-sea sediments and organisms of the Western Pacific Ocean. Environ. Pollut. 2020;259:113948. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113948. - DOI - PubMed
122. 1. Sangkham S. Face mask and medical waste disposal during the novel COVID-19 pandemic in Asia. Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 2020;2:100052. doi: 10.1016/j.cscee.2020.100052. -DOI
123. 1. Allison A.L., Ambrose-Dempster E., Aparsi T.D., Bawn M., Casas Arredondo M., Chau C., Chandler K., Dobrijevic D., Hailes H., Lettieri P. The Environmental Dangers of Employing Single-Use Face Masks as Part of a COVID-19 Exit Strategy. Vol. 3. UCL Press; London, UK: 2020. pp. 1–43.
124. 1. Abbasi S.A., Khalil A.B., Arslan M. Extensive use of face masks during COVID-19 pandemic:(micro-) plastic pollution and potential health concerns in the Arabian Peninsula. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2020;27:3181–3186. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.09.054. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
125. 1. Webb H.K., Arnott J., Crawford R.J., Ivanova E.P. Plastic degradation and its environmental implications with special reference to poly (ethylene terephthalate) Polymers. 2013;5:1–18. doi: 10.3390/polym5010001. - DOI
126. 1. Kumar H., Azad A., Gupta A., Sharma J., Bherwani H., Labhsetwar N.K., Kumar R. COVID-19 Creating another problem? Sustainable solution for PPE disposal through LCA approach. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2021;23:9418–9432. doi: 10.1007/s10668-020-01033-0. - DOI - PMC -PubMed
127. 1. Roy P., Mohanty A.K., Wagner A., Sharif S., Khalil H., Misra M. Impacts of COVID-19 Outbreak on the Municipal Solid Waste Management: Now and beyond the Pandemic. ACS Environ. Au. 2021;1:32–45. doi: 10.1021/acsenvironau.1c00005. - DOI
128. 1. Betsch C., Korn L., Sprengholz P., Felgendreff L., Eitze S., Schmid P., Böhm R. Social and behavioral consequences of mask policies during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2020;117:21851–21853. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2011674117. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
129. 1. Carbon C.-C. Wearing face masks strongly confuses counterparts in reading emotions. Front. Psychol. 2020;11:2526. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566886. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
130. 1. Marini M., Ansani A., Paglieri F., Caruana F., Viola M. The impact of facemasks on emotion recognition, trust attribution and re-identification. Sci. Rep. 2021;11:1–14. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-84806-5. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
131. 1. NIST . NIST Launches Studies into Masks’ Effect on Face Recognition Software. NIST; Gaithersburg, MD, USA: 2020. [(accessed on 10 September 2021)]. Available online: https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2020/07/nist-launches-studies-mask....
132. 1. Prata J.C., Silva A.L., Walker T.R., Duarte A.C., Rocha-Santos T. COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on the use and management of plastics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020;54:7760–7765. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02178. - DOI - PubMed
133. 1. Conzachi K. What You Can Do to Reduce the Environmental Impacts of COVID-19. 2020. [(accessed on 12 December 2021)]. Available online: https://www.colorado.edu/ecenter/2020/11/13/what-you-can-do-reduce-envir....
134. 1. Tsukiji M., Gamaralalage P.J.D., Pratomo I.S.Y., Onogawa K., Alverson K., Honda S., Ternald D., Dilley M., Fujioka J., Condrorini D. Waste Management during the COVID-19 Pandemic from Response to Recovery. United Nations Environment Programme, International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) IGES Center Collaborating with UNDP on Environmental Technologies (CCET); Osaka, Japan: 2020.
135. 1. Leja K., Lewandowicz G. Polymer biodegradation and biodegradable polymers-a review. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2010;19:255–266.
136. 1. Tebyetekerwa M., Xu Z., Yang S., Ramakrishna S. Electrospun nanofibers-based face masks. Adv. Fiber Mater. 2020;2:161–166. doi: 10.1007/s42765-020-00049-5. - DOI
137. 1. Nicosia A., Gieparda W., Foksowicz-Flaczyk J., Walentowska J., Wesołek D., Vazquez B., Prodi F., Belosi F. Air filtration and antimicrobial capabilities of electrospun PLA/PHB containing ionic liquid. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2015;154:154–160. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2015.09.037. - DOI
138. 1. Purwar R., Goutham K.S., Srivastava C.M. Electrospun Sericin/PVA/Clay nanofibrous mats for antimicrobial air filtration mask. Fibers Polym. 2016;17:1206–1216. doi: 10.1007/s12221-016-6345-7. - DOI
139. 1. Tiliket G., Le Sage D., Moules V., Rosa-Calatrava M., Lina B., Valleton J., Nguyen Q., Lebrun L. A new material for airborne virus filtration. Chem. Eng. J. 2011;173:341–351. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2011.07.059. - DOI
140. 1. De Sio L., Ding B., Focsan M., Kogermann K., Pascoal-Faria P., Petronela F., Mitchell G., Zussman E., Pierini F. Personalized Reusable Face Masks with Smart Nano-Assisted Destruction of Pathogens for COVID-19: A Visionary Road. Chem. Eur. J. 2021;27:6112–6130. doi: 10.1002/chem.202004875. - DOI - PubMed